The Book Of Lies J.w Hofstetter Pdf 20

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In the traditional dynamic pricing research, adaptive algorithms for optimization and estimation of prices are used to calculate models in which prices are optimized under varying market conditions, e.g., whether the firm is a monopolist or whether consumers are price-sensitive (Aydin and Ziya 2009; Bitran and Mondschein 1997). Such models use and combine different parameters and algorithms such as stochastic approximation algorithms (Robbins and Monro 1951) and Fibonacci algorithms (see, e.g., Bitran and Mondschein 1997). Others include principles of Bayesian decision theory and apply it to pricing strategies (Green 1963). Another widely used approach is to use different forms of learning algorithms with or without reinforcement learning. These algorithms actively change parameters with respect to varying external conditions. Sub-forms of reinforcement learning algorithms are Q-learning algorithms such as naïve Q-learning, multi-agent Q-learning, zero-sum games and MinMax Q-Learning, general-sum games and Nash Q-Learning (Ittoo and Petit 2017). They can, for instance, be used to solve Markov and semi-Markov decision problems (MDP, Gosavi 2004a)Footnote 4 One algorithm from this kind is proposed by Gosavi (2004b). It is a model-free and asynchronous algorithm that applies a nearest-neighbor approach to solve MDP in the pricing context. Other learning algorithms use R-learning (Schwartz 1993) or SMART and Relaxed-SMART algorithms (Das et al. 1999). The latter group of algorithms are all based on some form of value iteration.

In the following analysis, we build on a social sciences approach rooted in evolutionary economics to outline the ethical challenges connected to algorithmic pricing for the micro, meso, and macro levels of society (Dopfer et al. 2004). The strength of this analytical framework lies in differentiating between individual (micro level) and aggregated population perspectives (macro level), whereby organizations and structures are represented by the intermediary trajectory (meso level) that connects and affects both the micro and macro levels. In our ethical assessment of algorithmic pricing that is to follow, we draw on major streams of ethical thinking, namely deontology, teleological and consequentialist ethics, social contract theory, and utilitarianism to mark and classify instances where algorithmic pricing would surely be approved (moral goods), or rejected (moral bads) by most ethical schools (for a similar approach in a different context see Dierksmeier and Seele 2016). In a third category (moral ambiguities), we gather those instances where the ethical evaluation varies according to the moral perspective and does not allow for an unequivocal ethical classification. Applying this categorization to the micro, macro, and meso levels, we can derive a heuristical matrix that provides a structured overview and permits for identifying critical research gaps and future challenges related to algorithmic pricing (see Table 5).

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The Quakers (Religious Society of Friends) came to be a strong influence for the temperance cause.[182] By the 1830s, Quakers were in agreement with the dominant moral philosophy of this era in regarding distilling spirits as sinful while accepting beer brewing.[183][184] Several prominent Quaker families in this era were involved in large London breweries.[183][185]

The Southern Baptist Convention resolved that their "churches be urged to give their full moral support to the prohibition cause, and to give a more liberal financial support to dry organizations which stand for the united action of our people against the liquor traffic."[245][246][247] Influential Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon wrote: "I wish the man who made the law to open them had to keep all the families that they have brought to ruin. Beer shops are the enemies of the home; therefore, the sooner their licenses are taken away, the better."[248][249]

David Wilkerson founder of the Teen Challenge rehabilitation organization, said similar things to Assemblies of God: "a little alcohol is too much since drinking in moderation provides Satan an opening to cruel deception."[252][253]

Degelia plumbea occurs in Atlantic Canada from sea level to just over 300m elevation (the highest elevation in the region is 820m, the peak of Mt. Carleton in New Brunswick). D. plumbea occurs most often in forests where the climate is cool and humid in summer but the winters are moderate and the rainfall throughout the year high. Degelia is especially common in low lying areas where there is frequent fog or at higher elevations where there is cloud. It also occurs where there are topographic features that help to trap moisture, such as valleys, gullies, swamps, streams and lakes. These habitat characteristics indicate a requirement for high humidity levels.Degelia plumbea colonizes large mature or over-mature trees that growing in wet areas. This lichen is not restricted to a particular side of a tree but can be found at every cardinal point, suggesting its light requirements are not exacting. This lichen colonizesmature, coarse-barked trees in deciduous or mixed deciduous/coniferous forests where light levels increase during winter months but where there is protective shade in summer. It is most commonly found from 50cm above ground level up to about 2m. In some areas in Newfoundland, it occurs higher up its host trees..

Degelia plumbea thrives in the Atlantic coastal forests of Nova Scotia. The D. plumbea locations in Nova Scotia are generally in mixed forests containing red maple (Acer rubrum) that are in wet depressions or adjacent to streams, rivers or lakes. These wet habitats are referred to as red maple swales (Golet et al. 1993). Red maple can make up 50% of the tree species composition while balsam fir (Abies balsamea) is also a common component, up to 30%. The age of red maples, in sites where Degelia is frequent, can exceed 90-100 years, though the stem size may be as small as 10cm dbh (diameter at breast height). Despite the relatively young age of these trees, the woodlands may be very ancient due to wave/gap replacement occurring on a local and movable patch scale in the landscape (Mosseler et al. 2003). The poorly drained, moist depressions where these maples grow can occur in very narrow strips (100-150m) along stream edges, between ridges which scarcely register on topographic maps. The ridges provide protection from drying winds. Moss cover in the moist depressions is generally abundant and often includes a carpet of Sphagnum.. The herb layer is usually dominated by cinnamon fern, but may include bunchberry, sarsaparilla, sedges, gold thread and false lily of the valley. Outside of these red maple swales, D. plumbea is found on the Atlantic coast near rivers and streams or adjacent to wetlands. It also occurs less frequently in deciduous forests on rich soil on hillside slopes as in the Cape Breton Highlands, on the North Mountain on the Fundy coast, and in the Cobequid Hills. These forests are dominated by Acer saccharum, Betula alleghaniensis and Fagus grandifolia. D. plumbea is most often found in humid micro-climates near seeps, vernal ponds or steep sided gullies.

On mainland in New Brunswick, both occurrences are within 5 km of the Bay of Fundy in the fog belt in low-lying, mossy, forests dominated by eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis). The cedars in some stands have been dated to nearly 400 years old and the light levels in the stands are low (75-90% crown closure). They are generally humid, with deep moss cover on the ground and an open understory with scattered balsam fir (Abies balsamea), occasional red spruce (Picea rubens), and mountain paper birch (Betula cordifolia). At Maces Bay, the cedar stand lies at an elevation of 15m on a west-facing slope above a small stream at the base of a 43m high north/south running ridge. Only one stem was found with Degelia. Nearby clear-cutting stopped about 40m from the Degelia location and the resulting blow-down included the lichen's 24cm dbh tree. The tree limbs were still intact when the lichen was discovered in 2005. In 2008, three thalli on the east face of the fallen and now moss-covered dead Thuja stem appeared healthy. Their sizes ranged from 1.2cm to 5cm.The second mainland occurrence is at Ten Mile Creek. This is a moderately open ca.10-hectare Thuja stand which lies on the northwest side of a coastal domed bog at an elevation of approximately 45m. The normally low light levels in the stand were altered by a large blowdown which occurred since 1995 (Clayden, pers. comm. 2008). A small stream and several swampy areas enhance humidity levels in the stand, which receives frequent coastal fog. The thirty thalli in the stand are on stems of 13-29cm dbh. The USA occurrence near Cobscook Bay State Park, which is close to the Canadian border, is also on Thuja. 2b1af7f3a8